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From http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8117915.stm

‘Oldest musical instrument’ found

By Pallab Ghosh Science correspondent, BBC News Scientists in Germany have published details of flutes dating back to the time that modern humans began colonising Europe, 35,000 years ago. The flutes are the oldest musical instruments found to date. The researchers say in the Journal Nature that music was widespread in pre-historic times. Music, they suggest, may have been one of a suite of behaviours displayed by our own species which helped give them an edge over the Neanderthals. The team from Tubingen University have published details of three flutes found in the Hohle Fels cavern in southwest Germany. The cavern is already well known as a site for signs of early human efforts; in May, members of the same team unveiled a Hohle Fels find that could be the world’s oldest Venus figure.

The most well-preserved of the flutes is made from a vulture’s wing bone, measuring 20cm long with five finger holes and two “V”-shaped notches on one end of the instrument into which the researchers assume the player blew.

The archaeologists also found fragments of two other flutes carved from ivory that they believe was taken from the tusks of mammoths.

Creative origins

The find brings the total number of flutes discovered from this era to eight, four made from mammoth ivory and four made from bird bones.

According to Professor Nicholas Conard of Tubingen University, this suggests that the playing of music was common as far back as 40,000 years ago when modern humans spread across Europe.

“It’s becoming increasingly clear that music was part of day-to-day life,” he said.

“Music was used in many kinds of social contexts: possibly religious, possibly recreational – much like we use music today in many kinds of settings.”

The researchers also suggest that not only was music widespread much earlier than previously thought, but so was humanity’s creative spirit.

“The modern humans that came into our area already had a whole range of symbolic artifacts, figurative art, depictions of mythological creatures, many kinds of personal ornaments and also a well-developed musical tradition,” Professor Conard explained.

The team argues that the emergence of art and culture so early might explain why early modern humans survived and Neanderthals, with whom they co-existed at the time, became extinct.

“Music could have contributed to the maintenance of larger social networks, and thereby perhaps have helped facilitate the demographic and territorial expansion of modern humans relative to a culturally more conservative and demographically more isolated Neanderthal populations,” they wrote.

That is a view supported by Professor Chris Stringer, a human origins researcher at the Natural History Museum in London.

“These flutes provide yet more evidence of the sophistication of the people that lived at that time and the probable behavioural and cognitive gulf between them and Neanderthals,” he said.

“I think the occurrence of these flutes and animal and human figurines about 40,000 years ago implies that the traditions that produced them must go back even further in the evolutionary history of modern humans – perhaps even into Africa more than 50,000 years ago.

“But that evidence has still to be discovered.”

Follow the link to listen to a reconstruction of the sound from the flute.

Yes, all the magnetic posts are leading somewhere.  I will get there soon.

From http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2005/11/051121102345.htm

Researchers Uncover How A Nanoscale ‘Compass’ Inside Bacteria Orients Them To The Earth’s Magnetic Field

ScienceDaily (Nov. 21, 2005) — It is not only migratory birds that orient themselves to the magnetic field of the Earth. Also bacteria — supposedly “simple” organisms — have evolved to be able to take advantage of the magnetic field in their search for optimal living conditions.

Such “magnetotactic” microorganisms use a miniature, cellular compass made of a chain of single nanomagnets, called magnetosomes. The entire bacterium is oriented like a compass needle inside the magnetic field. Until now, it was not clear how the cells organise magnetosomes into a stable chain, against their physical tendency to collapse by magnetic attraction…

Cryoelectron tomography of a magnetotactic bacterium: a three-dimensional reconstruction of the interior of a Magnetospirillum gryphiswaldense cell. The cell membrane is blue, the magnetosome crystal red, and the surrounding vesicle yellow. The image makes it clear that both the membrane vesicle and the “mature” magnetosomes are strung like pearls on a chain along a filamentous structure (green), which is similar to a cytoskeleton. (Image: Max Planck Institute for Biochemistry)

from http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/uk/science/article6493481.ece

Oceans charge up new theory of magnetism

A radical new idea may revolutionise our understanding of one of the most vital forces on Earth

 Jonathan Leake

Earth’s magnetic field, long thought to be generated by molten metals swirling around its core, may instead be produced by ocean currents, according to controversial new research published this week.

It suggests that the movements of such volumes of salt water around the world have been seriously underestimated by scientists as a source of magnetism.

If proven, the research would revolutionise geophysics, the study of the Earth’s physical properties and behaviour, in which the idea that magnetism originates in a molten core is a central tenet.

Earth’s magnetic field is vital for life, extending tens of thousands of miles into space and protecting the planet against radiation that would otherwise burn away the atmosphere and oceans.

However, its origin was a mystery until early last century when Albert Einstein said understanding the phenomenon was one of science’s most important tasks. This provoked a debate which concluded with scientists agreeing that magnetism must originate in the Earth’s core.

“Everyone accepted this, but in reality there has never been any proof,” said Gregory Ryskin, associate professor of chemical and biological engineering at Northwestern University in Illinois. “It is just an idea we have accepted for a long time without questioning it enough.”

His research suggests that Earth’s magnetism is actually linked to ocean movements. The salt in seawater allows it to conduct electricity, meaning it generates electrical and magnetic fields as it moves.

The findings, published by Britain’s Institute of Physics’s New Journal of Physics, will cause a fierce scientific debate.

Existing theories explain Earth’s magnetism by suggesting that the centre of the planet comprises a white-hot solid iron ball about 1,500 miles in diameter, surrounded by an outer shell of liquid metal a further 1,400 miles thick.

As the liquid iron in that shell is heated by the inner core it becomes less dense and rises upwards, to be replaced by cooler material from above.

The resulting swirls of molten metal create electric currents that in turn produce the planet’s magnetic field, the conventional theory suggests.

The big problem with this idea is that it is almost impossible to obtain experimental evidence because the Earth’s core is so inaccessible. Indirect approaches, such as computer modelling, have thrown up many inconsistencies.

Ryskin approached the problem differently, by looking at the way Earth’s magnetic field undergoes constant changes, growing stronger in some regions and weaker in others. This phenomenon, known as variation, also sees gradual shifts in the locations of the north and south magnetic poles.

Scientists have always linked variation with turbulence in the outer core, but Ryskin suggests it actually correlates with changes in ocean circulation. In the north Atlantic, for example, changes in the strength of currents were matched by sharp changes in magnetic fields.

One idea is that changes in ocean circulation may explain the curious reversals shown by Earth’s magnetic field, in which the north and south magnetic poles suddenly flip over. This last happened 780,000 years ago.

This could also be linked to tectonic plate movements that have shifted the world’s land masses around the globe, forcing ocean currents to adopt entirely new routes.

If Ryskin is right, then climate change, predicted to alter the strength and course of ocean currents, could also alter the planet’s magnetic field.

Ryskin emphasises that such suggestions need much more research, but some other physicists have been quick to recognise its implications. Raymond Shaw, professor of atmospheric physics at Michigan Technological University, said it could make “the ruling paradigm of geophysics irrelevant”.